Jades for Life and Death

Classification: Ceremonial Object

Maker(s): Artist: Liangzhu culture 良渚 (ca. 3300-ca. 2250 BCE)

Historical period(s): Late Neolithic period, ca. 3300-2250 BCE

Object Date: ca. 3300-2250 BCE

Medium: Jade (nephrite)

Dimension(s): Diam x D: 16 x 1.2 cm (6 1/4 x 1/2 in) Diam (hole): 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in)

Origin: China, Lake Tai region, but purportedly found at Luoyang , Henan province

Notes: but purportedly found at Luoyang , Henan province

Credit Line: Gift of Charles Lang Freer

Collection: Freer Gallery of Art Collection

Accession Number: F1919.27

: 璧
新石器時代晚期良渚文化（公元前3300--2250年）
中國太湖地區，原傳河南洛陽出土
軟玉
直徑16、厚1.2釐米；孔徑4.3釐米
查爾斯·蘭·佛利爾贈送
器物編號：F1919.27

Provenance: Reportedly excavated in Lo-yang, Honan [1]

Wu Dacheng (1835-1902) [2]

To 1919
You Xiaoxi (late 19th-early 20th century), Shanghai, to 1919 [3]

1919
Charles Lang Freer (1854-1919), purchased from You Xiaoxi, in New York, in 1919 [4]

From 1920
Freer Gallery of Art, gift of Charles Lang Freer in 1920 [5]

Notes:

[1] According to Curatorial Remark 1 in the object record: "Formerly in the collection of Wu Ta Ch'eng of Kiangsu, and said to have been excavated at Lo-yang, Honan."

[2] See note 1.

[3] See Original Miscellaneous List, S.I. 1406, pg. 330, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Archives.

[4] See note 3.

[5] The original deed of Charles Lang Freer's gift was signed in 1906. The collection was received in 1920 upon the completion of the Freer Gallery.

Previous owner(s): Wu Dacheng 吳大澂 (1835-1902)
You Xiaoxi 游篠溪 (C.L. Freer source) (late 19th-early 20th century)
Charles Lang Freer (1854-1919)

Past label text: Liangzhu 良渚 and its Legacy, November 4, 2010–January 3, 2016; by Keith Wilson (shown with F1917.354, F1918.28, F1917.345, F1917.19, F1919.18, F1917.83, F1917.350, F1918.25, F1918.26, F1917.344, F1914.66)
Bi 璧 disks
Neolithic period, Liangzhu 良渚 culture, ca. 3300–2250 BCE
Jade (nephrite)

Although the circular shape of these bi 璧 resembles earlier jade pendants, their sheer size and weight make them impossible to wear. Such disks most likely held a ritual significance since thousands of them have been found at Liangzhu 良渚 burial sites. The ones fashioned from finer jade and smoothed to a lustrous polish were typically placed nearest the deceased’s body, while those of lesser-quality stone and with unfinished surfaces were often arranged in short stacks below the feet.

The finest Liangzhu 良渚 bi 璧 (pronounced bee) were crafted from dark, even-grained nephrite. They were meticulously shaped with a circular edge and a central hole, signs of great patience and skilled workmanship. Perhaps more interesting are the imperfectly shaped disks. Some still retain evidence of the jade boulder’s rough edges. Others preserve traces of tool marks, such as the shallow cuts that resulted from string saws methodically rubbing back and forth across the flat stone surface thousands of years ago.

Liangzhu 良渚 jade bi 璧
Thousands of jade bi 璧, too large to be worn as jewelry, have been unearthed in elite burial sites associated with the Liangzhu 良渚 culture. Variations are apparent in the size of the disks, the quality of the stone used, the level of workmanship, and the finish of the bi 璧, yet their meaning, purpose, and ritual significance remain unknown. A century ago Charles Lang Freer acquired all of these bi 璧 largely for their aesthetic appeal at a time when nothing was known of the Liangzhu 良渚 culture.

Usually fashioned from even-grained dark nephrite, the most exceptional examples of bi 璧 are perfectly circular in circumference. On some, traces of sawing and grinding have been completely polished away, and the smooth surfaces are buffed to a lustrous shine. In many cases, however, the flawed stone is irregular in shape, and the disk still retains intriguing evidence of its manufacture.

Working jade is an extremely laborious process that involves both slicing and removing unwanted stone with powdered abrasive minerals, such as quartz, garnet, or corundum. Slabs were cut from boulders of jade probably found in river beds. The back-and-forth movement of flexible string or strap saws typically left traces of shallow concave cut marks. A rigid stone saw might have shaped the outer edges with a series of straight cuts. Hollow tubular bits, aided by mineral abrasives and water, could have been used to drill the central hole from both sides of the disk to avoid breakage. A tiny projecting ridge inside the hole remains if the drill bits were improperly aligned. To finish the bi 璧, the outer edge might have been turned on a lathe. Lastly, the surface was polished with fine abrasives to create a high sheen.

2. (Keith Wilson, "Afterlife: Ancient Chinese Jades," Gallery 19, Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Oct. 14, 2017 to Apr 15, 2018)

Bi
China, late Neolithic period, Liangzhu culture, ca. 3300–2250 BCE
Jade (nephrite)
Gift of Charles Lang Freer F1919.27

A Swarm of Bi
Thousands of jade bi (pronounced bee) have been unearthed in elite Liangzhu culture burial sites, varying in size, quality of stone, level of workmanship, and finish. Yet the meaning, purpose, and ritual significance of bi remain unknown.

On the most exceptional examples, which are perfect circles of even-grained dark nephrite, sawing and grinding marks have been completely polished away. On other bi you can still see traces of shallow cuts that resulted from string saws rubbed methodically back and forth across the flat stone surface.

Bi fashioned from finer jade and smoothed to a lustrous polish were typically buried near the deceased’s body. Those of lesser-quality stone and with unfinished surfaces were often stacked below the feet.

Curatorial Remarks

1. Bought from Seaouke Yue [You Xiaoxi] 游筱溪 of Shanghai 上海. Formerly in the collection of Wu Ta Ch'eng [Wu Dacheng] 吳大澂 (1835--1890) of Kiangsu [Jiangsu] 江蘇, and said to have been excavated at Lo yang [Luoyang] 洛陽, Honan [Henan] 河南. For price, see Original Miscellaneous List, p. 330. $75.

2. (Undated Folder Sheet note) Original attribution: Chinese. Chou [Zhou] 周. See further, S.I. 1406, Appendix IX.

3. (Isabel Ingram Mayer, 1945) Chou [Zhou] 周 dynasty.

4. (Undated Folder Sheet note) Sp. G. is 3.006. Nephrite.

5. (H. Elise Buckman, 1964) The Envelope File contained no further information, and has now been destroyed.

6. (Thomas Lawton, 1978) Attribution changed from Chou [Zhou] 周 to Neolithic. See Folder Sheet for F1917.19.

7. (Stephen Allee per Keith Wilson, March 3, 2008) On this date entered: Period One (Late Neolithic period), Date (ca. 5000--ca. 1700 BCE), Artist (Liangzhu 良渚 culture), Title, Object name, Geographical region (Lake Tai 太湖 region); plus Description per Jenny F. So and Dimensions per Christine Lee, from Jade Project Database.

8. (Jeffrey Smith per Keith Wilson, July 17, 2008) Ceremonial Objects added as secondary classification.

9. (Stephen Allee, March 23, 2009) Added designation "nephrite" to Medium as per Janet Douglas using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (January 8, 2009).

10.(Jeffrey Smith, April 13, 2016) Transferred from Description: (Jenny So, from Jade Project Database) Mottled dark green and brown. Biconical hole, drilled off-center, with ridge at meeting point and turn marks on wall. Unevenly round. Chipped edges. Surface polished smooth, with curved slice marks on one face.

Published References

J. Keith Wilson, Jingmin Zhang. Jades for Life and Death. .
You Xiaoxi. Description of antique Chinese paintings and brass wares as well as of porcelains of different ages, The Charles Lang Freer papers., 1919. No. 74, p. 55, 67.

CC0 - Creative Commons (CC0 1.0): This image is in the public domain (free of copyright restrictions). You can copy, modify, and distribute this work without contacting the Smithsonian. For more information, visit the Smithsonian's Terms of Use page.

The information presented on this website may be revised and updated at any time as ongoing research progresses or as otherwise warranted. Pending any such revisions and updates, information on this site may be incomplete or inaccurate or may contain typographical errors. Neither the Smithsonian nor its regents, officers, employees, or agents make any representations about the accuracy, reliability, completeness, or timeliness of the information on the site. Use this site and the information provided on it subject to your own judgment. The National Museum of Asian Art welcomes information that would augment or clarify the ownership history of objects in their collections..

Save this image | Terms of use

Disk (bi 璧)

Related Objects

Related Media

Web Resources