1. Ancient Chinese Jade, September 4, 1980–March 6, 1981; by Julia K. Murray (shown with F1917.83, F1917.354, F1918.25, F1917.350, F1919.19, F1919.85, F1917.347, F1916.380, F1916.505, F1919.30; additional disks of later periods shown in same case)
2. Liangzhu 良渚 and its Legacy, November 4, 2010–January 3, 2016; by Keith Wilson (shown with F1917.354, F1919.27, F1917.345, F1917.19, F1919.18, F1917.83, F1917.350, F1918.25, F1918.26, F1917.344, F1914.66)
Bi 璧 disks
Neolithic period, Liangzhu 良渚 culture, ca. 3300–2250 BCE
Jade (nephrite)
Although the circular shape of these bi 璧 resembles earlier jade pendants, their sheer size and weight make them impossible to wear. Such disks most likely held a ritual significance since thousands of them have been found at Liangzhu 良渚 burial sites. The ones fashioned from finer jade and smoothed to a lustrous polish were typically placed nearest the deceased’s body, while those of lesser-quality stone and with unfinished surfaces were often arranged in short stacks below the feet.
The finest Liangzhu 良渚 bi 璧 (pronounced bee) were crafted from dark, even-grained nephrite. They were meticulously shaped with a circular edge and a central hole, signs of great patience and skilled workmanship. Perhaps more interesting are the imperfectly shaped disks. Some still retain evidence of the jade boulder’s rough edges. Others preserve traces of tool marks, such as the shallow cuts that resulted from string saws methodically rubbing back and forth across the flat stone surface thousands of years ago.
Liangzhu 良渚 jade bi 璧
Thousands of jade bi 璧, too large to be worn as jewelry, have been unearthed in elite burial sites associated with the Liangzhu 良渚 culture. Variations are apparent in the size of the disks, the quality of the stone used, the level of workmanship, and the finish of the bi 璧, yet their meaning, purpose, and ritual significance remain unknown. A century ago Charles Lang Freer acquired all of these bi 璧 largely for their aesthetic appeal at a time when nothing was known of the Liangzhu 良渚 culture.
Usually fashioned from even-grained dark nephrite, the most exceptional examples of bi 璧 are perfectly circular in circumference. On some, traces of sawing and grinding have been completely polished away, and the smooth surfaces are buffed to a lustrous shine. In many cases, however, the flawed stone is irregular in shape, and the disk still retains intriguing evidence of its manufacture.
Working jade is an extremely laborious process that involves both slicing and removing unwanted stone with powdered abrasive minerals, such as quartz, garnet, or corundum. Slabs were cut from boulders of jade probably found in river beds. The back-and-forth movement of flexible string or strap saws typically left traces of shallow concave cut marks. A rigid stone saw might have shaped the outer edges with a series of straight cuts. Hollow tubular bits, aided by mineral abrasives and water, could have been used to drill the central hole from both sides of the disk to avoid breakage. A tiny projecting ridge inside the hole remains if the drill bits were improperly aligned. To finish the bi 璧, the outer edge might have been turned on a lathe. Lastly, the surface was polished with fine abrasives to create a high sheen.
3. (Keith Wilson, "Afterlife: Ancient Chinese Jades," Gallery 19, Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Oct. 14, 2017 to Apr 15, 2018)
Bi
China, late Neolithic period, Liangzhu culture, ca. 3300–2250 BCE
Jade (nephrite)
Gift of Charles Lang Freer F1918.28
A Swarm of Bi
Thousands of jade bi (pronounced bee) have been unearthed in elite Liangzhu culture burial sites, varying in size, quality of stone, level of workmanship, and finish. Yet the meaning, purpose, and ritual significance of bi remain unknown.
On the most exceptional examples, which are perfect circles of even-grained dark nephrite, sawing and grinding marks have been completely polished away. On other bi you can still see traces of shallow cuts that resulted from string saws rubbed methodically back and forth across the flat stone surface.
Bi fashioned from finer jade and smoothed to a lustrous polish were typically buried near the deceased’s body. Those of lesser-quality stone and with unfinished surfaces were often stacked below the feet.
International Image Interoperability Framework