Liangzhu 良渚 and its Legacy, November 4, 2010--January 3, 2016; by Keith Wilson (shown with F1917.356, F1918.27, F1916.155, F2002.16)
Bi 璧 with knobs
China, late Neolithic period, Liangzhu 良渚 culture, ca. 3300--2250 BCE; reworked, Qing 清 dynasty, 1644--1911
Jade (nephrite)
Many of the jade forms associated with the Neolithic Liangzhu 良渚 culture disappeared during the early Bronze Age. More than a thousand years later, however, a revival in creating and using certain kinds of funerary objects might have begun with the chance discovery of long-forgotten Liangzhu 良渚 tombs in central China. In fact, some burial sites from the Zhou 周 dynasty include reburied Neolithic bi 璧, while others hold new disks placed prominently around the deceased in an echo of ancient rites.
Disks unearthed in later tombs are generally made of thin slices of jade that are decorated on both sides. The textured surface and glassy polish lent a highly reflective surface to the translucent objects and marked a new aesthetic in the working of jade.
Although visually similar to two other disks (F1917.356 and F1918.27), this bi 璧 (F1917.50) was most likely decorated more than two millennia later. The smooth, undecorated surface of an authentic Liangzhu 良渚 disk was reworked to resemble late Bronze Age versions, a practice popular during the reign of Emperor Qianlong 乾隆 (1735--96).
Liangzhu 良渚 jade bi 璧
Thousands of jade bi 璧, too large to be worn as jewelry, have been unearthed in elite burial sites associated with the Liangzhu 良渚 culture. Variations are apparent in the size of the disks, the quality of the stone used, the level of workmanship, and the finish of the bi 璧, yet their meaning, purpose, and ritual significance remain unknown. A century ago Charles Lang Freer acquired all of these bi 璧 largely for their aesthetic appeal at a time when nothing was known of the Liangzhu 良渚 culture.
Usually fashioned from even-grained dark nephrite, the most exceptional examples of bi 璧 are perfectly circular in circumference. On some, traces of sawing and grinding have been completely polished away, and the smooth surfaces are buffed to a lustrous shine. In many cases, however, the flawed stone is irregular in shape, and the disk still retains intriguing evidence of its manufacture.
Working jade is an extremely laborious process that involves both slicing and removing unwanted stone with powdered abrasive minerals, such as quartz, garnet, or corundum. Slabs were cut from boulders of jade probably found in river beds. The back-and-forth movement of flexible string or strap saws typically left traces of shallow concave cut marks. A rigid stone saw might have shaped the outer edges with a series of straight cuts. Hollow tubular bits, aided by mineral abrasives and water, could have been used to drill the central hole from both sides of the disk to avoid breakage. A tiny projecting ridge inside the hole remains if the drill bits were improperly aligned. To finish the bi 璧, the outer edge might have been turned on a lathe. Lastly, the surface was polished with fine abrasives to create a high sheen.
2. (Keith Wilson, "Afterlife: Ancient Chinese Jades," Gallery 19, Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Oct. 14, 2017 to Apr 15, 2018)
Bi with knobs
China, late Neolithic period, Liangzhu culture, 3300–2250 BCE, reworked, Qing dynasty, 1644–1911
Gift of Charles Lang Freer F1917.50
Bi Revival
Many jade forms stopped being made with the passing of the Neolithic Liangzhu culture. Well over a thousand years later, however, the chance discovery of long-forgotten Liangzhu tombs in central China may have sparked a revival in the use of certain types of funerary objects. Some burial sites from the Zhou dynasty (circa 1050–256 BCE), for example, include reburied Neolithic bi, while others hold new disks placed prominently on or around the deceased, as if echoing ancient rites.
Bi unearthed in later tombs are generally made of thin slices of nephrite decorated on both sides to create a textured surface. A glassy polish gave the translucent objects a highly reflective surface that marked a new aesthetic in working with jade.
In a twist of retro fashion, the lowest bi seen here was likely decorated more than two millennia after the two disks it resembles. The smooth, undecorated surface of an authentic Liangzhu disk was reworked to look like late Bronze Age versions, a practice made popular during the reign of the Qianlong emperor (1735–96).
International Image Interoperability Framework